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How to Master Organic Chemistry

To succeed in Organic Chemisry, you need a well organized approach. Remember the key to success in Organic Chemistry lies in understanding of the topics in detail. Some study tips for Organic Chemistry are as follows:-

  • Over 10 Million organic Compounds exist. You cannot possibly remember all of them. However once you know the basics of how they are formed, believe me, you will be able to understand them all.
  • Organic Chemistry is rational, systematic, highly organized and not at all difficult to understand. There is no need to be scared of Organic Chemistry - Organize yourself and you can master it.
  • Work on problems. More you work yourself, more intricacies you will understand. Lots of quizzes are available on this website - attempt them all. Click here to go to online courses
  • Study actively- with pen and paper. Draw structures for molecules mentioned by name. Write complete reactions during the practice with reagents.
  • Prepare the summary / flash cards for each topic - they help you to refresh your memory instantly.
  • Ask questions to your teacher. For this you need to study the topic one night before. Review your topics every day. Do not leave them for the penultimate day
  •  Each chapter requires the knowledge of previous ones to understand it fully. It is preferable to go in a sequence and not jump chapters.
  • Master periodic properties of elements so that you can understand organic mechanisms very well.

Organic Chemistry (Orgo-1) Classes

Organic Chemistry (Orgo-1) classes are aimed at preparing the students for the upcoming semesters in the college so that they are well prepared for the fast moving semester course and attain good grades on it.

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Organic Chemistry Exam course content is outlined below


Unit -1 General electronic configuration

  1. Basic principles for atomic structure-
    1. Electrons,
    2. Bonds, and
    3. Lewis Structures
  2. Formal Charges
  3. Electronegativity and bond polarity
  4. Atomic Orbitals -quantum mechanics           
  5. Valence Bond Theory
    1. Sigma
    2. Pi bond
  6. Molecular Orbital Theory
    1. Bonding
    2. Antibonding orbitals
  7. Hybridization in organic molecules
    1. Sp3
    2. Sp2
    3. sp
  8. VSEPR Theory: Predicting Geometry
  9. Dipole Moments and Molecular Polarity
  10. Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties
  11. Solubility
    1. Choice of Solvent
    2. Solvating Effects
    3. Counterions 


Unit -2 Molecular Structures and nomenclature of organic molecules.

  1. Ways of representing organic molecules –
    1. Full structure notation
    2. Condensed structure notation
    3. Bond–line notation
    4. Mixed notation
  2. Identifying Functional Groups in organic molecules.
  3. Introduction to nomenclature
  4. Nomenclature of the priority groups I
  5. Nomenclature of the priority groups II
  6. Naming complex substituents
  7. Nomenclature of aromatic compounds
  8. Nomenclature of bicyclic compounds.

Unit -3 Isomerism in organic chemistry


  1. Degrees of unsaturation in organic molecules
  2. Isomerism in organic molecules
  3. Constitutional isomers
    1. Chain isomers
    2. Position isomers
    3. Functional group isomers
    4. Metamers
  4. Stereoisomers
    1. Geometrical isomers - “cis” and “trans” stereochemical descriptors
    2. Optical isomers
      1. Chirality
      2. Optical activity
      3. Enantiomers and diastereomers
  5. The Cahn–Ingold–Prelog (CIP)  rules of  E,Z system
  6. The Cahn–Ingold–Prelog (CIP) R,S system
  7. Application of the CIP R,S system to enantiomers and diastereomers
  8. Physical Properties of Diastereomers and enantiomers
  9. Racemic mixtures and meso compounds
  10. Enantiomeric Excess and Optical Purity
  11. Resolution of enantiomers
  12. Absolute and Relative Configuration
  13. The Walden inversion of amine nitrogens.


Unit -4 Resonance -


  1. Carbon Atoms with Formal Charges
  2. Identifying Lone Pairs and bond pairs 
  3. Meaning of curved arrows-Flow of electron density
    1. Delocalized and Localized Lone Pairs .
    2. Formal Charges in Resonance Structures
  4. The meaning of resonance structures
  5. Do’s and don’ts rule for making resonance structure
  6. Writing resonance structures: Some common mistakes
  7. Consequences of resonance-
    1. modification of bond length and bond strength;
    2. stabilization;
    3. modification of hybridization.
  8. Ranking of resonating structures based on stability.
  9. Practice resonance structure


Unit -5 Acids and Bases


  1. Arrhenius Acids and Bases
  2. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and bases
  3. Lewis Acids and Bases
  4. Identification of acids, bases conjugate acids and conjugate bases.
  5. Acidity trends –Strength of acids and bases
  6. Periodic-table trends in acidity
  7. Inductive effect on acidity
  8. Resonance effect on acidity
  9. The effect of hybridization on acidity
  10. pH, pOH, pKa, pKb and pKw and how are they related to each other.
  11. Position of Equilibrium based on strength of acids and bases.


Unit -6 Conformational analysis


  1. Newman projections
  2. Sawhorse representations
  3. 3-D wedge and dash representation
  4. Conformational analysis of butane and ethane
    1. Staggered conformation
    2. Eclipsed conformation
    3. Strain energy
    4. Stability of conformations
  5. Molecular strain
    1. bond-length strain;
    2. bond-angle strain;
    3. steric strain;
    4. eclipsing strain (also called torsional strain).
  6. Conformational analysis of the cycloalkanes
    1. “cis” and “trans” stereochemical descriptors used with rings
    2. Eclipsed and staggered conformations in cycloalkanes
    3. Cyclopropane
    4. Cyclobutane and cyclopentane
    5. Cyclohexane
    6. Chair and boat conformation in cyclohexane
    7. Monosubstituted and disubstituted rings.
    8. 1,3 diaxial interactions in cycloalkanes


Unit -7 Chemical Reactivity and Mechanisms


  1. Enthalpy and Entropy changes during a reaction.
  2. Bond-Dissociation Enthalpies
  3. Gibbs Free Energy and Equilibria
  4. Energy Diagrams for reactions
  5. Transition energy and The Hammond Postulate
  6. Kinetics and activation energy
  7. Rates of Multistep Reactions
  8. Temperature dependence of rates
  9. Thermodynamically controlled and kinetically controlled reactions.
  10. Mechanisms and Drawing Curved Arrows
  11. Nucleophiles and Electrophiles.
  12. Reactive intermediates
    1. Free radicals ,
    2. Carbocation,
    3. Carbanion,
    4. carbene
  13. Stability of carbocations and free radical
  14. Rearrangement of carbocations.
    1. Mechanism of 1,2 hydride shift
    2. Mechanism of 1,2 methyl shift
  15. Important general Mechanism -I
    1. Free radical substitution
    2. Mechanism -II Electrophilic addition reaction
    3. Mechanism -III Electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction
    4. Mechanism -IV Nucleophilic addition reactions
    5. Mechanism -IV Nucleophilic substitution reactions
    6. Mechanism -V Elimination reactions


Unit -8 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes


  1. Classification of Hydrocarbons
  2. Molecular Formulas of Alkanes
  3. Nomenclature of Alkanes
  4. Review for Rules for Naming Alkanes
  5. Physical Properties of Alkanes
  6. Free radical halogenation reactions
    1. Temperature Dependence of Halogenation
    2. Selectivity in Halogenation
  7. Reactions of Alkanes
  8. Structure and conformations in alkanes and cycloalkanes
  9. Relative Stability of Isomeric Alkanes
  10. Stabilities of Cycloalkanes-Ring Strain.
  11. Calculating the strain energy of monocyclic cycloalkanes
  12.  Bicyclic Molecules
  13. Calculating the strain energy of polycyclic cycloalkanes


Unit -9 ALKYL HALIDES: NUCLEOPHILIC - SUBSTITUTION AND ELIMINATION


  1. Review of Nomenclature of Alkyl Halides
  2. Structure of Alkyl Halides
  3. Physical Properties of Alkyl Halides
  4. Preparation of Alkyl Halides
  5. Reactions of Alkyl Halides: Substitution and Elimination
  6. Second-Order Nucleophilic Substitution: The SN2 Reaction
    1. Mechanism of the SN2 Reaction
    2. Factors Affecting SN2 Reactions
    3. Trends in Nucleophilicity
    4. Reactivity of the Substrate in SN2 Reactions
    5. Stereochemistry of the SN2 Reaction
  7. First-Order Nucleophilic Substitution: The SN1 Reaction
    1. Mechanism of The SN1 Reaction
    2. Stereochemistry of the SN1 Reaction
    3. Rearrangements in the SN1 Reactions
    4. Mechanism of Racemization in the SN1 Reaction
  8. Comparison of SN1 and SN2 Reactions
  9. First-Order Elimination: The E1 Reaction
    1. Mechanism of The E1 Reaction
    2. Mechanism of Rearrangement in an E1 Reaction
  10. Zaitsev’s Rule as Positional Orientation of Elimination
  11. Hofmann’s Rule for elimination.
  12. Second-Order Elimination: The E2 Reaction
    1. Mechanism of The E2 Reaction
    2. Stereochemistry of the E2 Reaction
  13. Comparison of E1 and E2 Elimination Mechanisms
  14. Determining Which Mechanism Predominates


Unit -10 Alkenes structures and synthesis


  1. Review of Nomenclature of Alkenes with Cis/Trans or E/Z designations.
  2. The Orbital picture of the Alkene Double Bond
  3. Elements of Unsaturation
  4. Stability of Alkenes -Zaitsev’s rule
  5. Physical Properties of Alkenes
  6. Alkene Synthesis by Elimination of Alkyl Halides
  7. Mechanism of Dehydrohalogenation by the E2 Mechanism
  8. Stereochemistry of the E2 Reaction
  9. Regioselectivity of E2 Reactions- Zaitsev product. And Hofmann product
  10. Mechanism of E2 Debromination of a Vicinal Dibromide
  11. Alkene Synthesis by Dehydration of Alcohols
  12. Mechanism of Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration of an Alcohol
  13. Alkene Synthesis by High-Temperature
  14. Dehydrogenation of Alkanes
  15. Catalytic Cracking of Alkanes


Unit -11Alkene reactions


  1. Reactivity of the Carbon–Carbon Double Bond
  2. Electrophilic Addition to carbon -carbon double bond.
    1. Mechanism of Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes
  3. Thermodynamic and kinetic factor controlling the equilibrium of addition and elimination reaction.
  4. Hydrohalogenation of Alkenes  to give Alkyl halides
    1. Mechanism for  Hydrohalogenation of Alkene -Markovnikov’s addition
    2. Mechanism for  Free-Radical Addition of HBr to Alkenes -Anti Markovnikov’s addition
  5. Addition of Water: Hydration of Alkenes to give alcohol
    1. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Hydration of an Alkene -Markovnikov’s addition
    2. Hydration of Alkene by Oxymercuration–Demercuration -  Markovnikov’s addition
    3. Mechanism for  Oxymercuration of an Alkene
    4. Hydroboration of Alkenes to give alcohol via Anti Markovnikov’s addition
    5. Mechanism for  Hydroboration of an Alkene
  6. Alkoxymercuration–Demercuration of alkenes to give ethers
  7. Addition of Halogens to Alkenes to vicinal dihalides
    1. Mechanism for Addition of Halogens to Alkenes
  8. Formation of Halohydrins
    1. Mechanism for Formation of Halohydrins
  9. Reduction by Catalytic Hydrogenation of Alkenes
  10. Addition of Carbenes to Alkenes to form cyclopropane.
  11. Epoxidation of Alkenes
    1. Mechanism for Epoxidation of Alkenes
  12. Epoxidation of Alkenes
    1. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Opening of Epoxides
  13. Oxidative addition on alkene –
    1. Syn Dihydroxylation of Alkenes
    2. Anti-Dihydroxylation using MCPBA
  14. Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes using Conc KMnO4
  15. Ozonolysis 
    1. Reductive ozonolysis
    2. Oxidative ozonolysis
  16. Polymerization of Alkenes
  17. Synthesis strategies with alkene reactions


Unit -12 ALKYNES


  1. Review of Nomenclature of Alkynes
  2. Physical Properties of Alkynes
  3. Orbital Structure of Alkynes
  4. Acidity of Acetylene and Terminal Alkynes
  5. Synthesis of Alkynes from Acetylides
  6. Synthesis of Alkynes by Elimination Reactions
  7. Reduction of Alkynes
    1. Mechanism -Metal–Ammonia Reduction of an Alkyne
  8. Addition Reactions of Alkynes
    1. Hydrohalogenation of Alkynes
    2. Hydration of Alkynes
    3. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Keto–Enol Tautomerism
    4. Mechanism for Base-Catalyzed Keto–Enol Tautomerism
    5. Halogenation of Alkynes
  9. Oxidation of Alkynes -Ozonolysis of Alkynes
  10. Alkylation of Terminal Alkynes
  11. Synthetic Strategies with alkynes.


Unit -13 STRUCTURE AND SYNTHESIS OF ALCOHOLS

  1. Structure and Classification of Alcohols
  2. Review Nomenclature of Alcohols and Phenols
  3. Physical Properties of Alcohols
  4. Acidity of Alcohols and Phenols
  5. Preparation of Alcohols
    1.  Via Substitution or Addition
    2. Organometallic Reagents for preparation of Alcohol
    3. Addition of Grignard reagents to Carbonyl Compounds
    4. Mechanism for Grignard Reactions
  6. Preparation of Phenols
  7. Side Reactions of Organometallic Reagents
    1. Reduction of Alkyl Halides
  8. Reduction of the Carbonyl Group:
    1.  Synthesis of 1° and 2° Alcohols
    2. Mechanism for Hydride Reduction of a Carbonyl Group
  9. Thiols (Mercaptans)


Unit -14 REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS


  1. Oxidation States of Alcohols
  2. Alcohols as Nucleophiles and Electrophiles-
    1. Formation of Tosylates
    2. SN2 Reactions Of Tosylate Esters
  3. Reduction of Alcohols
  4. Reactions of Alcohols with Hydrohalic Acids
    1. Mechanism for  Reaction of a Tertiary Alcohol with HBr (SN1)
    2. Mechanism for Reaction of a Primary Alcohol with HBr (SN2)
  5. Reactions of Alcohols with Phosphorus Halides
    1. Mechanism for  Reaction of Alcohols with PBr3
  6. Reactions of Alcohols with Thionyl Chloride
  7. Dehydration Reactions of Alcohols
    1. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration of an Alcohol
  8. Reactions of Diols
    1. Mechanism The Pinacol Rearrangement
  9. Esterification of Alcohols
    1. Mechanism of esterification
  10. Esters of Inorganic Acids
  11. Reactions of Alkoxides
    1. Mechanism -The Williamson Ether Synthesis


Unit -15 ETHERS, EPOXIDES, AND THIOETHERS


  1. Review of Nomenclature of Ethers
  2. Structure and Physical Properties of Ethers
  3. Synthesis of ethers
    1. The Williamson Ether Synthesis
    2. Mechanism -The Williamson Ether Synthesis
    3. Synthesis of Ethers by Alkoxymercuration–Demercuration
    4. Bimolecular Condensation of Alcohols
  4. Reactions of Ethers
    1. Cleavage of Ethers by HBr and HI
    2. Mechanism for Cleavage of an Ether by HBr or HI
  5. Autoxidation of Ethers
  6. Thioethers (Sulfides) and Silyl Ethers
  7. Crown Ethers
  8. Nomenclature of Epoxides
  9. Preparation of Epoxides
  10. Stereochemistry of epoxides
  11. Reactions of Epoxides
    1. Acid-Catalyzed Ring Opening of Epoxides
    2. Mechanism for  Acid-Catalyzed Opening of Epoxides in Water
    3. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Opening of an Epoxide in an Alcohol Solution
    4. Base-Catalyzed Ring Opening of Epoxides
    5. Mechanism for Base-Catalyzed Opening of Epoxides
  12. Orientation of Epoxide Ring Opening
  13. Reactions of Epoxides with Grignard and Organolithium Reagents
  14. Thiols and Sulfides
  15. Synthesis Strategies Involving Epoxides


Unit -16 Spectroscopy in organic chemistry


  1. Introduction to Spectroscopy
  2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
    1. Units of Frequency. Wavelength and Wavenumber
    2. Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation by Organic Molecules
  3. Index of Hydrogen Deficiency - Degrees of Unsaturation
  4. The Rule of Thirteen
  5. The Nitrogen Rule

Infrared Spectroscopy

  1. The Infrared Region
  2. Molecular Vibrations
  3. Signal Characteristics:
    1. Wavenumber
    2. Intensity
    3. Shape
  4. Analyzing an IR Spectrum
  5. Factors That Influence the Stretching Vibration
  6. Infrared Spectroscopy of Hydrocarbons
    1. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes, Aromatic rings ,cycloalkanes ,cycloalkene
  7. Characteristic Absorptions of Alcohols, phenols and Amines
  8. Characteristic Absorptions of ethers
  9. Characteristic Absorptions of Carbonyl Compounds
    1. Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic acids, Esters, Amides, Acid Chlorides, Anhydride, conjugated dicarbonyl compounds.
  10. Characteristic Absorptions of C—N Bonds
    1. Amines, Nitriles, Isocyanates, Isothiocyanates, and Imines, Nitro Compounds
    2. Carboxylate Salts, Amine Salts, and Amino Acids
  11. Sulfur Compounds, Phosphorus Compounds, Alkyl and Aryl Halides
  12. Simplified Summary of IR Stretching Frequencies
  13. Using IR Spectroscopy to Distinguish between Two Compounds

 

Mass Spectrometry

  1. Introduction to Mass Spectrometry
  2. Determination of the Molecular Formula by Mass Spectrometry
  3. Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry
    1. Analyzing the (M)+• Peak
    2. Analyzing the (M+1)+• Peak
    3. Analyzing the (M+2)+• Peak
    4. Analyzing the Fragments
  4. Fragmentations Associated with Functional Groups
    1. Alkanes and alkane groups ,Cycloalkanes
    2. Alkenes and alkene groups ,Cycloalkenes
    3. Alkynes
    4. Aromatic hydrocarbon groups
    5. Halides
    6. Alcohols ,Phenols
    7. Ethers, acetals and ketals
    8. Carbonyl compounds generally
      1.  Aldehydes, Ketones and quinones
      2. Carboxylic acids
      3. Esters
      4. Amides
      5. Anhydrides
      6. Acid chlorides
  5. Nitriles  ,Nitro compounds ,Amines and nitrogen heterocycles
  6. Sulfur compounds

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

  1. Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy
  2. Absorption of Energy
  3. Theory of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
  4. Magnetic Shielding by Electrons
  5. Characteristics of a 1H NMR Spectrum
  6. Chemical Equivalence -Number of Signals
  7. The Chemical Shift and Shielding
  8. Chemical Environment and Chemical Shift
  9. Integration- Areas of the Peaks
  10. Pascal’s Triangle
  11. Multiplicity-
    1. Spin-Spin Splitting
    2. Complex Splitting
  12. Stereochemical Nonequivalence of Protons
  13. Typical 1 H NMR Absorptions by Type of Compound
    1. Alkanes, Alkenes, Aromatic Compounds, Alkynes
    2. Alkyl Halides
    3. Alcohols, Ethers
    4. Amines, Nitriles
    5. Aldehydes. , Ketones., Esters ,Carboxylic Acids., Amides.
    6. Nitroalkanes

Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy

  1. The Carbon-13 Nucleus
  2. Carbon-13 Chemical Shifts Correlation Charts .
  3. Calculation of 13C Chemical Shifts
  4. Proton-Coupled 13C Spectra—
    1. Spin–Spin Splitting of Carbon-13 Signals
  5. Proton-Decoupled 13C Spectra
  6. Some Sample Spectra—Equivalent Carbons
  7. Non-Equivalent Carbon Atoms Compounds with Aromatic Rings
  8. Carbon-13 NMR Solvents—Heteronuclear Coupling of Carbon to Deuterium
  9. Carbon and Proton NMR: How to Solve a Structure Problem

ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPY

  1. The Nature of Electronic Excitations and The Origin of UV Band Structure
  2. Principles of Absorption Spectroscopy
  3. Presentation of Spectra
  4. What Is a Chromophore?
  5. The Effect of Conjugation
    1. The Effect of Conjugation on Alkenes
    2. The Woodward–Fieser Rules for Dienes
  6. Carbonyl Compounds; Enones
    1. Woodward’s Rules for Enones
    2. α,β-Unsaturated Aldehydes, Acids, and Esters
  7. Aromatic Compounds –
    1. Substituents with Unshared Electrons,
    2. Substituents Capable of p-Conjugation,
    3. Electron-Releasing and Electron-Withdrawing Effects,
    4. Disubstituted Benzene Derivatives,
    5. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Compounds


Unit -17 Conjugated Pi Systems and Pericyclic Reactions


  1. Introduction to different classes of Classes of Dienes
  2. Stabilities of Dienes
    1. Conjugated Diene
    2. Molecular Orbital Picture of a Conjugated System
  3. Molecular Orbitals of the Allylic System
    1. Electronic Configurations of the Allyl Radical, Cation, and Anion
    2. Mechanism for Free-Radical Allylic Bromination
  4. Electrophilic Addition
    1. 1,2- and 1,4-Addition to Conjugated Dienes
    2. Mechanism for  1,2- and 1,4-Addition to a Conjugated Diene
  5. Kinetic versus Thermodynamic Control in the
    1. Addition of HBr to Buta-1,3-diene
    2. SN2 Displacement Reactions of Allylic Halides and Tosylates
  6. Introduction to Pericyclic Reactions
  7. The Diels–Alder Reaction
    1. Mechanism for The Diels–Alder Reaction
    2. The Diels–Alder as an Example of a Pericyclic Reaction
  8. MO Description of Cycloadditions
  9. Electrocyclic Reactions


Unit -18 AROMATIC COMPOUNDS


  1. Nomenclature of Benzene Derivatives
  2. The Structure and Stability of Benzene
    1. The Molecular Orbitals of Benzene
    2. The Molecular Orbital Picture of Cyclobutadiene
  3. Aromaticity
    1. Aromatic,
    2.  Antiaromatic,
    3. and Nonaromatic Compounds
    4. Hückel’s Rule
    5. Molecular Orbital Derivation of Hückel’s Rule
    6. Aromatic Ions
  4. Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds and  Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
  5. Aromatic Compounds Other than Benzene
  6. Reactions at the Benzylic Position
  7. Reduction of the Aromatic Moiety


Unit -19 REACTIONS OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS


  1. Meaning of Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
    1. Mechanism for  Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
  2. Halogenation of Benzene
    1. Mechanism for Bromination of Benzene
  3. Nitration of Benzene
    1. Mechanism for Nitration of Benzene
  4. Sulfonation of Benzene
    1. Mechanism for Sulfonation of Benzene
  5. Nitration of Toluene: The Effect of Alkyl Substitution
  6. Activated and deactivated rings
    1. Activating, Ortho, Para-Directing Substituents
    2. Deactivating, Meta-Directing Substituents
  7. Halogens: The Exception : Deactivating, but Ortho,Para-Directing
  8. Determining the Directing Effects of  Multiple Substituents
  9. The Friedel–Crafts Alkylation
    1. Mechanism for Friedel–Crafts Alkylation
  10. The Friedel–Crafts Acylation
    1. Mechanism Friedel–Crafts Acylation
  11. Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution - Elimination-Addition
    1. Mechanism for  Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (Addition–Elimination)
    2. Mechanism for  Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (Benzyne Mechanism)
  12. Aromatic Substitutions Using Organometallic Reagents
  13. Addition Reactions of Benzene Derivatives
    1. Mechanism for The Birch Reduction
  14. Side-Chain Reactions of Benzene Derivatives
  15. Reactions of Phenols


Unit -20 KETONES AND ALDEHYDES


  1. Structure of the Carbonyl Group
  2. Review of  Nomenclature of Ketones and Aldehydes
  3. Physical Properties of Ketones and Aldehydes
  4. Synthesis of Ketones and Aldehydes
  5. from alcohols
    1. from Carboxylic Acids
    2. from Nitriles
    3. from Acid Chlorides and Esters
  6. Reactions of Ketones and Aldehydes:
    1. Introduction to Nucleophilic Addition Reaction
    2. Mechanism for  Nucleophilic Additions to Carbonyl Groups
  7. With Oxygen Nucleophiles
    1. Hydration of Ketones and Aldehydes
    2. Mechanism for Hydration of Ketones and Aldehydes
    3. Formation of Acetals
    4. Key Mechanism for Formation of Acetals
    5. Use of Acetals as Protecting Groups
  8. With Nitrogen Nucleophiles
    1. Mechanism for Formation of Cyanohydrins
    2. Formation of Imines
    3. Mechanism for Formation of Imines
    4. Condensations with Hydroxylamine and Hydrazines
    5. Summary: Condensations of Amines with Ketones and Aldehydes
  9. Nucleophilic Addition Reaction of sulfide as Sulfur Nucleophiles
  10. Nucleophilic Addition of hydride Hydrogen Nucleophiles
  11. With Carbon Nucleophiles
    1. The Wittig Reaction
    2. Mechanism for  The Wittig Reaction
    3. Formation of Cyanohydrins
  12. Oxidation of Aldehydes
    1. Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones
    2. Tollen’s reagent test for aldehydes
    3. Fehling’s test for aldehydes
  13. Reductions of Ketones and Aldehydes
    1. Mechanism for Wolff–Kishner Reduction
    2. Clemmenson Reduction


Unit -21 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS


  1. Review of  Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
  2. Structure and Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
  3. Acidity of Carboxylic Acids
    1. Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids.
    2. Salts of Carboxylic Acids
  4. Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
    1. From oxidation of  alcohols
    2. From oxidation of aldehydes
    3. Hydrolysis of acid nitriles
    4. From Grignard reagent
    5. Hydrolysis of esters
    6. Hydrolysis of acid halides
    7. Hydrolysis of acid anhydride
    8. Hydrolysis of amides
  5. Reactions of Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
    1. Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution
    2. Mechanism for Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution in the Basic Hydrolysis of an Ester
    3. Condensation of Acids with Alcohols:The Esterification Reaction
    4. Mechanism for Fischer Esterification
    5. Esterification Using Diazomethane
    6. Mechanism for Esterification Using Diazomethane
    7. Condensation of Acids with Amines: Direct Synthesis of Amides
  6. Reduction of Carboxylic Acids
  7. Alkylation of Carboxylic Acids to Form Ketones
  8. Synthesis and Use of Acid Chlorides


Unit -22 CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES


  1. Structure and Nomenclature of Acid Derivatives
  2. Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
  3. Reactivity order of acid derivatives for Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution
  4. Interconversion of Acid Derivatives by Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution
    1. Mechanism for Addition–Elimination Mechanism of Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution
    2. Mechanism for Conversion of an Acid Chloride to an Anhydride
    3. Mechanism for Conversion of an Acid Chloride to an Ester
    4. Mechanism for Conversion of an Acid Chloride to an Amide
    5. Mechanism for Conversion of an Acid Anhydride to an Ester
    6. Mechanism for  Conversion of an Acid Anhydride to an Amide
    7. Mechanism for Conversion of an Ester to an Amide (Ammonolysis of an Ester) Transesterification
    8. Mechanism for Transesterification
  5. Hydrolysis of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
    1. Mechanism for  Saponification of an Ester
    2. Mechanism for Basic Hydrolysis of an Amide
    3. Mechanism for Acidic Hydrolysis of an Amide
    4. Mechanism for Base-Catalyzed Hydrolysis of a Nitrile
  6. Reduction of Acid Derivatives
    1. Mechanism for  Hydride Reduction of an Ester
    2. Mechanism for Reduction of an Amide to an Amine
  7. Reactions of Acid Derivatives with Organometallic Reagents
    1. Mechanism for Reaction of an Ester with Two Moles of a
    2. Grignard Reagent
  8. Summary of the Chemistry of Acid Chlorides
  9. Summary of the Chemistry of Anhydrides
  10. Summary of the Chemistry of Esters
  11. Summary of the Chemistry of Amides
  12. Summary of the Chemistry of Nitriles
  13. Thioesters


Unit -23 AMINES


  1. Review for Nomenclature of Amines
  2. Structure and Physical Properties of Amines
  3. Basicity of Amines
    1. Effects on Amine Basicity
    2. Salts of Amines
  4. Reactions of Amines with Ketones and Aldehydes
  5. Aromatic Substitution of Arylamines and Pyridine
    1. Mechanism for Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution of Pyridine
    2. Mechanism for Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution of Pyridine
  6. Alkylation of Amines by Alkyl Halides
  7. Acylation of Amines by Acid Chlorides
    1. Mechanism for Acylation of an Amine by an Acid Chloride
  8. Formation of Sulfonamides
  9. Amines as Leaving Groups: The Hofmann Elimination
    1. Mechanism for  Hofmann Elimination
  10. Oxidation of Amines
    1. The Cope Elimination
    2. Mechanism for The Cope Elimination of an Amine Oxide
  11. Reactions of Amines with Nitrous Acid
    1. Mechanism for Diazotization of an Amine
    2. Reactions of Arenediazonium Salts
  12. Preparation of Amines via Substitution Reactions
  13. Preparation of Amines via Reductive Amination
    1. Synthesis of Amines by Reductive Amination
    2. Synthesis of Amines by Acylation–Reduction


Unit -24 Alpha Carbon Chemistry: Enols and Enolates


  1. Introduction alpha carbon chemistry - Alpha Substitution
    1. Mechanism for Alpha Substitution
    2. Mechanism for  Addition of an Enolate to Ketones and Aldehydes (a Condensation)
    3. Mechanism 22-3: Substitution of an Enolate on an Ester (alpha Condensation)
  2. Enols and Enolate Ions
    1. Mechanism for  Base-Catalyzed Keto–Enol Tautomerism
    2. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Keto–Enol Tautomerism
    3. Alkylation of Enolate Ions
  3. Formation and Alkylation of Enamines
  4. Alpha Halogenation of Ketones
    1. Mechanism for Base-Promoted Halogenation
    2. Mechanism for Final Steps of the Haloform Reaction
    3. Mechanism for Acid-Catalyzed Alpha Halogenation
    4. Alpha Bromination of Acids: The HVZ (Hell -Volhard -Zelinsky) Reaction
  5. The Aldol Condensation of Ketones and Aldehydes
    1. Mechanism for Base-Catalyzed Aldol Condensation
    2. Mechanism for  Acid-Catalyzed Aldol Condensation
    3. Dehydration of Aldol Products
    4. Mechanism for  Base-Catalyzed Dehydration of an Aldol
    5. Crossed Aldol Condensations
    6. Cyclic aldol reactions
  6. Planning Syntheses Using Aldol Condensations
  7. The Claisen Ester Condensation
    1. Mechanism for  The Claisen Ester Condensation
    2. The Dieckmann Condensation: A Claisen Cyclization
    3. Crossed Claisen Condensations
  8. Syntheses Using conjugated Dicarbonyl Compounds
  9. The Malonic Ester Synthesis
    1. Mechanism for The Malonic Ester Synthesis
  10. The Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis
    1. Mechanism for The Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis
  11. Conjugate Additions:
    1. The Michael Reaction
    2. Mechanism for 1,2-Addition and 1,4-Addition (Conjugate Addition)
  12. The Robinson Annulation
    1. Mechanism for The Robinson Annulation


Unit -25 CARBOHYDRATES AND NUCLEIC ACIDS


  1. Classification of Carbohydrates
    1. Monosaccharides oligosaccharide and polysaccharides
    2. Aldoses and ketoses
    3. Reducing and non-reducing sugars
  2. Stereochemistry of carbohydrates 
    1. assigning the configuration of monosaccharides
    2. Erythro and Threo Diastereomers
    3. Epimers
  3. Cyclic Structures of Monosaccharides
    1. Mechanism for Formation of a Cyclic Hemiacetal
    2. The Cyclic Hemiacetal Form of Glucose
    3. The Five-Membered Cyclic Hemiacetal Form of Fructose
    4. Anomers of Monosaccharides: Mutarotation
  4. Reactions of Monosaccharides:
    1. Side Reactions in Base
    2. Mechanism for Base-Catalyzed Epimerization of Glucose
    3. Mechanism for  Base-Catalyzed Enediol Rearrangement
    4. Reduction of Monosaccharides
    5. Oxidation of Monosaccharides:Reducing Sugars
    6. Nonreducing Sugars: Formation of Glycosides
    7. Ether and Ester Formation
    8. Reactions with Phenylhydrazine: Osazone Formation
    9. Chain Shortening: The Ruff Degradation
    10. Chain Lengthening: The Kiliani–Fischer Synthesis
    11. Determination of Ring Size: Periodic Acid Cleavage of Sugars
  5. Important Disaccharides -Sucrose ,maltose and lactose
  6. Important Polysaccharides -Starch ,Cellulose and glycogen
  7. Nucleic Acids: Introduction
  8. nucleosides and nucleotides in DNA and RNA
  9. Pyrimidines and purines
  10. Hydrolysis of DNA molecule
  11. Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid-
    1. The Double Helix of DNA
    2. Base pairing
    3. DNA  replication
  12. Structure of RNA
  13. Functions of RNA
  14. Difference in DNA and RNA


Unit -26 AMINO ACIDS, PEPTIDES, AND PROTEINS


  1. Introduction to Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
  2. Structure and Stereochemistry of the alpha Amino Acids
    1. Essential amino acids
    2. Non Essential amino acids
    3. Amino acids as Zwitter ion
    4. Acid–Base Properties of Amino Acids
    5. Isoelectric Points and Electrophoresis
  3. Synthesis of Amino Acids
  4. Resolution of Amino Acids
  5. Reactions of Amino Acids
  6. Structure and Nomenclature of Peptides and Proteins
  7. Peptide Structure Determination - Sequencing a Peptide
  8. Solution-Phase Peptide Synthesis
  9. Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis
  10. Classification of Proteins
    1. Levels of Protein Structure
    2. Protein Denaturation
  11. Enzymes and their functions
  12. Vitamins
  13. Classification of vitamins
  14. Important Vitamins ,their Sources and their deficiency diseases.


Unit -27 LIPIDS


  1. Introduction to lipids
  2. Waxes
  3. Triglycerides
  4. Saponification of Fats and Oils- Soaps and Detergents
  5. Phospholipids
  6. Steroids
  7. Prostaglandins
  8. Terpenes


Unit -28 POLYMERS


  1. Introduction to  Polymers
  2. Classification of Polymers
    1. Biopolymers or Natural polymers -Polysaccharides,Polynucleotide (RNA or DNA),polypeptides in proteins  ,natural rubber
    2. Synthetic polymers
    3. Classification Based on Structure of Polymers
    4. Classification Based on Mode of Polymerisation
    5. Classification of polymers Based on Molecular Forces
    6. Classification of polymers Based on Growth Polymerisation
  3. Preparation of some important addition polymers
    1. Polythene ,
    2. Polytetrafluoroethene ,
    3. Polyacrylonitrile,
  4. Important condensation polymerisation reactions
    1. Nylons,
    2. Polyesters,
    3. Bakelite,
    4. Melamine
  5. Copolymerisation
  6. Rubber-
    1. Synthetic rubbers
    2. Buna – S,
    3. Buna – N,
    4. Neoprene
  7. Molecular Mass of Polymers
  8. Biodegradable Polymers
  9. Poly β-hydroxybutyrate – co-β-hydroxy valerate (PHBV)
  10. Nylon 2–nylon 6


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